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代表中国股东担任美国公司董事 – 你所应当了解的董事忠慎义务

July 2018

by Catherine X. Pan-Giordano

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潘惜唇  包喜

随着越来越多的中国企业赴美上市、并购或投资,一大批中国企业家、私募基金经理人、高管、专业人士和学术界人士经中方股东提名或委派,担任美国公司董事。与一般采取股东中心主义的中国公司法不同,以特拉华州公司法为代表的美国各州公司法大都明确规定,董事会是负责公司经营管理的最高权力机构;股东仅在董事选举及公司控制权变更等特定事项上享有表决权。为防止董事会“乱政”和“怠政”,法律同时规定董事对公司和股东负有严格的忠慎义务(fiduciary duties)。来自中国的董事往往对董事的忠慎义务知之甚少,或抱有很多误解。针对这些情况,我们希望通过本文,简要介绍美国公司董事的忠慎义务,并就代表中国股东的董事所面临的特殊问题做出提示。

问题一:董事负有什么忠慎义务?

董事对公司和股东负有的忠慎义务包括勤勉义务(duty of care)和忠实义务(duty  of  loyalty)。勤勉义务要求董事以合理称职的方式履行决策和监督职能。这意味着,董事必须在充分掌握决策所需 相关信息的基础上(包括在必要的情况下获得外部专家意见),经过深思熟虑,审慎做出决策。忠实义务要求董事在任何与公司相关的事宜中,将公司利益置于自己利益之上。这意味着,董事不得与公司竞争、不得掠夺公司机会,以及不得以不公平的条件或在未完全披露相关信息的情况下与公司进行交易。

问题二:董事如果违反忠慎义务会承担什么法律责任?

一般来说,如果董事无利益冲突且合理知情,则其所做的决策即使最终对公司造成不利结果,   董事也可以依赖经营判断规则(business  judgment  rule)的保护而免于承担法律责任。经营判断规则是美国公司法中关于董事行为的最为重要的司法审查标准,根据这一规则,除非原告有充分证据证 明,董事会在某一事项上未能以善意(good  faith)进行决策、有利益冲突或未能做到合理知情,否 则法院必须假设董事会在该等决策上没有违反忠慎义务,因而不得就该等决策是否公平进行司法审查。但是,经营判断规则的假设一旦被推翻,且法官进而认定董事未能履行忠慎义务,则董事个人可能需 要为公司因此遭受的损失及其个人的不当得利承担法律责任。

在具有里程碑意义的Smith v. Van Gorkom一案中,特拉华州最高法院于1985年判决认为,TransUnion公司董事会在没有充分掌握有关信息的情况下,草率批准出售公司的交易的行为构成重 大过失,因而未能对公司股东履行勤勉义务。根据最终达成的和解协议,被起诉的董事们同意向股东总共支付2350万美元的损害赔偿。Van Gorkom案的判决使得董事责任保险的保费飙升,导致许多公司无法为其董事购买保险。为了避免董事大规模辞职,特拉华州立法机构于1986年在《特拉华普  通公司法》中新增了第102(b)(7)款,允许特拉华州公司在章程中加入在某些情形下限制或免除董   事因违反勤勉义务而承担金钱赔偿责任的条款。其他州随后也迅速通过了类似的法律规定。因此,董事现在通常不再会由于仅仅违反勤勉义务而承担金钱赔偿责任。但是,董事因违反忠实义务而承   担金钱赔偿责任的案例并不鲜见。例如,在2015年的都乐食品公司股东诉讼一案中,特拉华州衡  平法院判决认为,公司的自然人大股东兼董事以及公司的总裁兼董事在该公司与大股东之间的私有化交易中操纵交易过程,积极为大股东谋取利益,未能维护公司和小股东的最大利益,违反了其作为董事对公司和小股东负有的忠实义务,因而需要承担高达1.48亿美元的连带赔偿责任。

问题三:谁可以针对董事提起违反忠慎义务之诉?

公司和股东都可以针对董事提起违反忠慎义务之诉。由于公司受到董事会控制,公司通常不会起诉其董事。在此情况下,股东可以代表公司提起针对董事的股东派生诉讼。股东派生诉讼的诉由是董事违反忠慎义务的行为给公司造成了损害,因此胜诉后的赔偿对象不是起诉的股东,而是公司本身。但是,股东也可以直接诉公司董事违反忠慎义务,要求董事直接赔偿其作为股东遭受的损失。

问题四:董事如何保护自己,避免由于违反忠慎义务而承担法律责任?

为了履行勤勉义务,董事应当定期参加会议,并要求管理层向董事会提供充分和准确的信息,并对管理层提供的信息进行分析、思考和质询,如有必要还须聘请外部顾问提供专业咨询意见,以做到在充分知情的前提下,就公司经营进行有效监督和决策。为了履行忠实义务,董事应当在处理所有有关公司的事务时,将公司利益置于其个人利益之上;在涉及利益冲突的交易中,董事必须以对公司  “完全公平”的方式行事,包括向公司充分披露可能存在的利益冲突,以及在必要时回避参与决策过程。

除了通过适当履行忠慎义务避免承担法律责任外,董事还可以根据市场惯例,充分利用法律手段降低承担法律责任的风险:

  • 要求公司章程中写入免责条款,在法律允许的范围内免除董事因违反勤勉义务而向公司或股东承担金钱赔偿的法律责任。
  • 要求公司章程规定,公司应对董事因其担任公司董事而发生的赔偿责任或费用进行补偿。多数公司在其章程或章程细则中均要求公司在公司法允许的范围内为董事提供补偿。有些公司还与董事签订补偿协议,规定在公司法允许的最大范围内为董事提供强制性补偿。特拉华公司法还允许公司提前预付资金给董事,用于支付其在最终结案前发生的合理应诉费用。
  • 要求公司为其购买董事和高管责任保险,以防公司在资金不足的情况下无法向董事支付补偿金或预付诉讼资金。

问题五:代表中国股东担任美国公司的董事需要注意哪些特殊问题?

董事对公司和所有股东,而不仅仅是提名或委派自己的股东(下称“委任股东”),负有忠慎义务。虽然董事可以考虑委任股东的立场并与委任股东进行商讨,但必须从公司和所有股东的最大利益出发, 依赖自己的独立判断参与董事会决策过程,而不应对委任股东言听计从,更不能为了实现大股东的目 的而损害公司和其他股东的利益。

如果委任股东的利益和其他股东的利益是一致的,那么其提名或委派的董事并不会仅仅由于这层关系产生利益冲突的问题。但是如果两者的利益在某一事项上不一致,且潜在的利益冲突可能妨碍该等董事做出独立判断,则该等董事应及时和全面地披露潜在利益冲突。在这种情况下,董事会可以要求该等董事回避参与董事会与该事项有关的决策过程。

此外,董事对由于担任董事而获得的公司信息负有保密义务。如果董事擅自以可能损害公司的方式将该等信息披露给第三方,包括在某一事项上与公司或其他股东利益不一致的委任股东,则该董事可能会被认定为违反对公司和其他股东负有的忠实义务。不过,特拉华州法院的判例法明确规定,董事有权将其担任董事期间获得的公司信息提供给该董事的委任股东,但前提是该等信息分享不会造成损害公司利益的风险,即委任股东的利益和其他股东的利益在该事项上必须是一致的。

问题六:辞职是否可以免除董事因违反忠慎义务而产生的法律责任?

公司面临严重问题的时候,有些董事选择干脆辞去董事职务,误以为这样就可以避免因违反忠慎 义务而承担法律责任。实际上,辞职的行为非但不会免除此前违反忠慎义务而造成的法律责任,而且 可能本身就构成违反忠慎义务。例如,在2013年的一家中概股股东诉讼一案中,特拉华州衡平法院的 大法官在当庭裁决中指出,在明知该公司董事长自我交易和挪用公款的情况下,该公司的独立董事没 有促使公司起诉该董事长,而是辞去董事职务,从而将公司任由该董事长处置,这种行为可能已经构 成对其忠慎义务的违反。在这种情况下,独立董事应当采取包括诉讼等行动积极维护公司和股东利益, 切实履行忠慎义务,而不是辞职了事。

本文作者

Pan-Giordano, Catherine

潘惜唇 (Catherine X. Pan-Giordano)
合伙人
全美及中国联合业务部
联席主席
潘惜唇律师是德汇全美及中国联合业务部的联席主席,在处理在美国经营的中国企业所面临的法律问题方面具备丰富的经验。潘律师毕业于哈佛大学法学院,2013年至2015年连续被评选为纽约地区“超级律师之星”,并在2014年和2015年连续被《纽约时报》评选为纽约市“最佳女律师”。

包喜 (Wallace Bao)
律师
包喜律师是德汇纽约分所公司业务团队的律师,主要专注于跨境并购、股权投资和其他商业交易。他致力于将法律技能和管理经验相结合,帮助客户实现业务目标。在开始律师职业生涯之前,包律师 曾先后在两家跨国公司从事中国区和亚太地区的战略并购及合作项目的管理工作。包律师拥有美国纽 约州律师执照和中国法律职业资格,并毕业于长江商学院金融MBA项目。

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EPA Limits Title V Re-Litigation of NSR Permits

Overview On September 25, 2026, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”) published a final rule that significantly limits the ability of third parties to use the Clean Air Act (“CAA”) Title V permitting process to revisit New Source Review (“NSR”) permitting decisions years after those decisions were made. The rule establishes that NSR permitting determinations generally must be challenged during the original permitting proceeding, thereby providing regulated sources with greater permitting certainty and finality for major capital projects. Published in the Federal Register titled Clarifying the Scope of “Applicable Requirements” Under State Operating Permit Programs and the Federal Operating Permit Program (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2023-0401), the rule amends 40 C.F.R. Parts 70 and 71 to codify EPA’s interpretation regarding when requirements established under other CAA programs may be reviewed, modified, or implemented through the Title V operating permit program. The rule becomes effective 30 days after publication. The rule addresses two principal issues: (1) the relationship between NSR preconstruction permitting and Title V operating permits, and (2) the treatment of the General Duty Clause under CAA section 112(r)(1). Most significantly, the rule provides greater certainty for sources navigating the NSR permitting process. EPA’s amendments are intended to ensure that NSR permitting decisions made through an approved public process are generally not revisited later through Title V permit proceedings. The rule responds to a circuit split between the U.S. Courts of Appeals for the Fifth and Tenth Circuits. In Environmental Integrity Project v. EPA, 969 F.3d 529 (5th Cir. 2020), the Fifth Circuit upheld EPA’s interpretation, concluding that it was consistent with the text, structure, and purpose of Title V. In contrast, the Tenth Circuit reached the opposite conclusion in Sierra Club v. EPA, 964 F.3d 882 (10th Cir. 2020), finding that the then-existing regulatory definition of “applicable requirement” did not support EPA’s position. By amending the regulatory language on which the Tenth Circuit relied and codifying the interpretation approved by the Fifth Circuit, EPA has established a nationwide framework governing the interaction between NSR and Title V. NSR and Title V: EPA Establishes a Uniform Nationwide Framework At the core of the rule is EPA’s effort to define the respective roles of NSR and Title V. The rule codifies the approach EPA has applied since 2017: once a source obtains an NSR permit under an EPA-approved permitting program, and that permit was issued following public notice with an opportunity for comment and judicial review, the permit establishes the NSR-related “applicable requirements” of the State Implementation Plan (“SIP”) or Federal Implementation Plan (“FIP”) for Title V purposes. Under this framework, Title V is not a vehicle for re-examining underlying NSR permitting decisions. EPA does not intend to use the Title V process to revisit applicability determinations, emissions calculations, control technology determinations, permit conditions, or other issues resolved through the NSR permitting process. This principle applies regardless of the stage of the Title V proceeding; whether the NSR permit was issued pursuant to a SIP or FIP; the type of NSR issue involved; or whether the NSR permit is incorporated into Title V sequentially or concurrently. Limited Exceptions EPA recognizes several circumstances in which NSR issues may still be reviewed through the Title V program: No NSR permit was issued at all; The permit was issued without public notice and an opportunity for comment and judicial review; or The issue involves substantive overlap between Title V and NSR requirements, such as the adequacy of monitoring provisions. As a result, the rule does not insulate unpermitted projects or foreclose review of matters that independently arise under Title V. Key Regulatory Amendments The rule revises the definition of “applicable requirement” in 40 C.F.R. §§ 70.2 and 71.2. Paragraph (1): Where an NSR permit is issued with public notice and an opportunity for comment and judicial review, the permit establishes and defines the applicable SIP or FIP requirements for Title V purposes. Paragraph (2): All NSR permit terms, including terms contained in minor NSR permits, constitute applicable requirements that must be incorporated into Title V permits. Paragraph (4): CAA section 112(r)(1) (the General Duty Clause) is expressly excluded from the definition of “applicable requirement,” while section 112(r)(7) Risk Management Program requirements remain included. EPA also amended 40 C.F.R. §§ 70.8 and 70.12 to clarify that alleged defects in requirements established outside the Title V process generally do not provide a basis for EPA objection to a Title V permit or for a Title V citizen petition. General Duty Clause Exclusion The rule also codifies EPA’s longstanding position that the General Duty Clause in CAA section 112(r)(1) is not an “applicable requirement” for Title V purposes. EPA points to several considerations supporting that conclusion, including the distinction between the General Duty Clause and Title V permit terms, the provision’s origins in the Occupational Safety and Health Act’s general duty clause, and the different enforcement structures applicable to the General Duty Clause and Title V permit requirements. Importantly, excluding section 112(r)(1) from the definition of “applicable requirement” does not eliminate EPA’s authority to enforce the General Duty Clause independently of the Title V program. The final rule instead clarifies that the General Duty Clause need not—and should not—be incorporated into Title V permits as an applicable requirement. Practical Implications for Regulated Sources Greater Finality for NSR Permits  For projects requiring PSD, nonattainment NSR, or minor NSR permits, the permitting process becomes the primary forum for resolving disputes regarding applicability determinations, emissions calculations, control technology requirements, offsets, and permit conditions. Once an NSR permit is issued through a qualifying public process, regulated sources should face substantially reduced risk that those same issues will be challenged years later through Title V permit proceedings. Reduced Risk of Collateral Permit Challenges Stakeholders have sometimes sought to use Title V permit issuance, renewal, revision, or citizen-petition proceedings to challenge underlying NSR determinations. The final rule makes clear that Title V is not the appropriate vehicle for challenging whether an applicable requirement was correctly established in the first instance. This should reduce the risk of permit delays and uncertainty associated with collateral challenges to previously issued NSR permits. The rule does not, however, eliminate all Title V challenges relating to an NSR permit. Challenges concerning the Title V permit itself—including whether it appropriately incorporates applicable requirements or contains adequate compliance provisions—remain possible. Increased Importance of the Initial NSR Proceeding Because Title V generally will not provide a second opportunity to challenge the substantive validity of an NSR determination, the administrative record developed during the NSR process becomes increasingly important. Permit applicants should ensure that applicability analyses, emissions calculations, control technology evaluations, modeling demonstrations, and supporting technical documentation are thoroughly developed during the original permitting proceeding. For significant projects, applicants may therefore have an additional incentive to identify and resolve potential permitting issues before the NSR permit is issued rather than assuming that unresolved issues can be addressed during a subsequent Title V proceeding. Potential Incentive for Broader Public Participation EPA also notes that permitting authorities may choose to provide public notice and an opportunity for comment for a broader range of NSR permits because permits issued through a qualifying public process receive the benefit of the finality framework established by the rule. Some permitting authorities may conclude that greater public participation at the NSR stage is preferable to uncertainty during subsequent Title V proceedings. Conclusion The final rule is principally a permitting-certainty measure. For sources that obtain NSR permits through a public process, EPA has substantially limited the ability of third parties to revisit underlying NSR determinations through the Title V program. As a result, regulated entities should benefit from greater finality regarding key permitting decisions, reduced risk of collateral permit challenges, and increased certainty when planning and implementing capital projects.